Hydrology and Earth System Sciences www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net 1027-5606 1607-7938 13 7 2009 10.5194/hess-13-1163-2009 http://www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/13/1163/2009/ http://www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/13/1163/2009/hess-13-1163-2009.html http://www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/13/1163/2009/hess-13-1163-2009.pdf 1163 1184 2009-07-15 Integrating field and numerical modeling methods for applied urban karst hydrogeology J. Epting jannis.epting@unibas.ch D. Romanov P. Huggenberger G. Kaufmann Department of Environmental Sciences, Applied and Environmental Geology, University of Basel, Bernoullistr. 32, 4056 Basel, Switzerland Institute of Geological Sciences, FU Berlin, Malteserstr. 74–100, 12249 Berlin, Germany Infrastructures constructed on unstable geologic formations are prone to subsidence. Data have been collected in the context of an upgrading project for a highway located beside a river dam constructed on gypsum-bearing formations. Surface water infiltrates upstream of the dam, circulates through the gravel deposits and into the weathered bedrock around and beneath the dam, and exfiltrates downstream into the river. As a result, an extended weathering zone within the bedrock and preferential flow paths within voids and conduits developed as part of a rapidly evolving karst system. Enhanced karstification in the soluble units of the gypsum-bearing formations resulted in subsidence of the dam and the highway. <br><br> Since 2006, changes in the groundwater flow regime have been investigated by different methods that allowed the evaluation of the long-term performance of the infrastructures. Geological (outcrops, lithostratigraphic information from boreholes), hydrometrical (extensive groundwater monitoring, dye tracer tests) and hydrogeophysical (Electrical Resistivity Tomography, ERT) data were integrated into high-resolution 3-D hydrogeological and 2-D karst evolution models. The applied methods are validated and the sensitivity of relevant parameters governing the processes determined. <br><br> It could be demonstrated that the applied methods for karst aquifer characterization complement each other. Short-term impacts and long-term developments on system-dynamics and the flow regime could be evaluated. This includes the description of the transient character of the flow regime during and after episodic flood events (surface-groundwater interaction, conduit and diffuse model outflow) as well as the evaluation of time scales for karst evolution. Results allow the optimization of investigation methods for similar subsidence problems, ranging from general measurements and monitoring technologies to tools with predictive utility. % vor jede Referenz Anderson, M. P. and Woessner, W. W.: Applied groundwater modeling, Academic Press, San Diego, 1992. Bauer, S., Liedl, R., and Sauter, M.: Modelling of karst aquifer genesis - influence of exchange flow, Water Resour. Res., 39(10), 1285, doi:10.1029/2003WR002218, 2003. Bauer, S., Liedl, R., and Sauter, M.: Modelling the influence of epikarst evolution on karst aquifer genesis: a time-variant recharge boundary condition for joint karst-epikarst development, Water Resour. Res., 41, 1–12, doi:10.1029/2004WR003321, 2005. Birk, S., Liedl, R., and Sauter, M.: Identification of localized recharge and conduit flow by combined analysis of hydraulic and physico-chemical spring responses (Urenbrunnen, SW-Germany), J. Hydrol., 286, 179–193, doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2003.09.007, 2004. Birk, S., Liedl, R., Sauter, M., and Teutsch, G.: Simulation of the development of gypsum maze caves, Environ. Geol., 48, 296–306, 2005. Bitterli-Brunner, P., Fischer, H., and Herzog, P.: Geologic map Blatt Arlesheim 1067, Geological Atlas of Switzerland, 1984 (in German). Bitterli-Brunner, P. and Fischer, H.: Explanations map Blatt Arlesheim 1067, Geological Atlas of Switzerland, 1989 (in German). Bobok, E.: Fluid Mechanics for Petroleum Engineers, Elsevier Sci., New York, 400~pp., 1993. Breznik, M.: Storage Reservoirs and Deep Wells in Karst Regions, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 1998. Butscher, C. and Huggenberger, P.: Intrinsic vulnerability assessment in karst areas: a numerical modeling approach, Water Resour. Res., 44(3), W03408, doi:10.1029/2007WR006277, 2008. Clemens, T., Hückinghaus, D., Sauter, M., Liedl, R., and Teutsch, G.: A combined continuum and discrete network reactive transport model for the simulation of karst development, in: Calibration and Reliability in Groundwater Modelling, IAHS Publications, vol. 237, Proceedings of the ModelCARE 96 Conference, 309–318, 1996. Constantz, J. and Thomas, C. L.: The use of streambed temperature profiles to estimate the depth, duration, and rate of percolation beneath arroyos: Water Resour. Res., 32(12), 3597–3602, 1996. Constantz, J., Thomas, C. L., and Zellweger, G.: Influence of diurnal variations in stream temperature on streamflow loss and groundwater recharge, Water Resour. Res., 30(12), 3253–3264, 1994. De Marsily, G.: Quantitative hydrogeology – Groundwater hydrology for engineers, Academic Press, San Diego, 1986. Dogwiler, T., Wicks, C. M., and Jenzen, E.: An assessment of the applicability of the heat pulse method toward the determination of infiltration rates in karst losing-stream reaches, Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, 69(2), 237–242, 2007. Doherty, J.: PEST Model-Independent Parameter Estimation, Watermark Computing, Corinda, Australia, 1994. Dreiss, S. J.: Regional scale transport in a karst aquifer: 1. Component separation of spring flow hydrographs, Water Resour. Res., 25(1), 117–125, 1989a. Dreiss, S. J.: Regional scale transport in a karst aquifer: 2. Linear systems and time moment analysis, Water Resour. Res., 25(1), 126–134, 1989b. Dreybrodt, W.: The kinetics of calcite dissolution and its consequences to karst evolution from the initial to the mature state, NSS Bull., 49, 31–49, 1987. Dreybrodt, W.: Processes in karst systems-Physics, chemistry and geology, Springer Series in Physical Environments, vol. 5, Springer Berlin, New York, 1988. Dreybrodt, W.: The role of dissolution kinetics in the development of karstification in limestone: A model simulation of karst evolution, J. Geol., 98, 639–655, 1990. Dreybrodt, W.: Dynamics of karstification: a model applied to hydraulic structures in karst terranes, Appl. Hydrogeol., 1, 20–32, 1992. Dreybrodt, W.: Principles of early development of karst conduits under natural and man-made conditions revealed by mathematical analysis of numerical models, Water Resour. Res., 32, 2923–2935, 1996. Dreybrodt, W. and Siemers, J.: Cave evolution on two-dimensional networks of primary fractures in limestone, in: Speleogenesis: Evolution of Karst Aquifers, edited by: Klimchouk, A., Ford, D. C., Palmer, A. N., and Dreybrodt, W., , Nat. Speleol. Soc., USA, 201–211, 2000. Dreybrodt, W., Romanov, D., and Gabrovšek, F.: Karstification below dam sites: a model of increasing leakage in: Geotechnical and Environmental Applications of Karst Geology and Hydrology: Proceedings of the 8$^th$ Multidisciplinary Conference on Sinkholes and the Engineering and Environmental Impacts of Karsts, edited by: Beck, B. F. and Herring, J. G., Louisville, Kentucky, Balkema, 131–137, 2001. Dreybrodt, W., Gabrovšek, F., and Romanov, D.: Processes of Speleogenesis: a modelling approach. Carsologica, Verlag ZRC Publishing, Ljubljana, ISSN ISBN 961-6500-91-0, 2005. Eisenlohr, L., Bouzelboudjen, M., Kiraly, L., and Rossier, Y.: Numerical versus statistical modeling of natural response of a karst hydrogeological system, J. Hydrol., 202, 244–262, 1997. Environmental Modeling Systems Inc.: GMS, groundwater modeling system v6.0, online available at: http://www.ems-i.com, 2006. Epting, J., Huggenberger, P., and Glur, L.: A Concept for Integrated Investigations of Karst Phenomena in Urban Environments, Eng. Geol., submitted, 2009. Epting, J., Huggenberger, P., and Rauber, M.: Integrated methods and scenario development in urban groundwater management, and protection during tunnel road construction; A case study of urban hydrogeology in the city of Basel, Switzerland, Hydrogeol. J., 16, 575–591, 2008. Fechter, D.: Topography with the consideration of the cultural and conventional history, in: Basel in the 14th century, 1856 (in German). Ford, D. C. and Williams, P. W.: Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology, Unwin Hyman, London, UK, 1989. Gabrovšek, F., Menne, B., and Dreybrodt, W.: A model of early evolution of karst conduits affected by subterranean CO₂ sources, Environ. Geol., 39 (6), 531–543, 2000. Gabrovšek, F. and Dreybrodt, W.: The role of mixing corrosion in calcite aggressive H2O-CO2-CaCO3 solutions in the early evolution of karst aquifers in limestone, Water Resour. Res., 36, 1179–1188, 2000. Gabrovšek, F. and Dreybrodt, W.: A comprehensive model of the early evolution of karst aquifers in limestone in the dimensions of length and depth, J. Hydrol., 240(3–4), 206–224, 2001. Golder, E.: 100 years Birswuhr Neue Welt, published by: Baudepartement Basel-Stadt, Tiefbauamt, 1984 (in German). Groves, C. G. and Howard, A. D.: Early development of karst systems 1. Preferential flow path enlargement under laminar flow, Water Resour. Res., 30 (10), 2837–2846, 1994. Guerrero, J., Gutiérrez, F., Bonachea, J., and Lucha, P.: A sinkhole susceptibility zonation based on paleokarst analysis along a stretch of the Madrid-Barcelona high-speed railway built over gypsum- and salt-bearing evaporites (NE Spain), Eng. Geol., 102(1–2), 62–73, 2008. Gutiérrez, F.: Gypsum karstification induced subsidence: effects on alluvial systems and derived geohazards (Calatayud Graben, Iberian Range, Spain), Geomorphology, 16, 277–293, 1996. Gürler, B., Hauber, L., and Schwander, M.: Geology of the surrounding area of Basel with suggestions usage options of geothermal energy, in: Beitrag zur Geologischen Karte der Schweiz, 1987 (in German). Hanna, B. R. and Rajaram, H.: Influence of aperture variability on dissolutional growth of fissures in karst formations, Water Resour. Res., 34, 2843–2853, 1998. Harbaugh, A. W., Banta, E. R, Hill, M. C., and McDonald, M. G.: MODFLOW-2000, the US Geological Survey Modular Ground-Water Model – User Guide to Modularization Concepts and the Ground-Water Flow Process, Open-File Report 00-92 US, Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia, 2000. Höhn, E.: Hydrogeological issues of riverbank filtration – a review, in: Riverbank filtration understanding contaminant biogeochemistry and pathogen removal, edited by: Ray, C und NATO, Kluwer, Dordrecht, 17–41, 2002. Huggenberger, P., Epting, J., Regli, C., Spottke, I., and Zechner, E.: River-groundwater Interaction. MoNit: Modelling of nitrate groundwater contamination in the Upper Rhine Graben. INTERREG III A-Projekt, Landesamt für Umwelt, Messungen und Naturschutz Baden-Württemberg, Karlsruhe, Germany, 2006. James, A. N. and Lupton, A. R. R.: Gypsum and anhydrite in foundations of hydraulic structures, Geotechnique, 28, 249–272, 1978. James, A. N.: Soluble materials in civil engineering. Ellis Horwood Series in Civil Engineering, Ellis Horwood, Chichester, UK, 434~pp., 1992. Jarvis, T.: The money pit: karst failure of Anchor Dam, Wyoming in: Evaporite karst and engineering/environmental problems in the United States, edited by: Johnson, K. S. and Neal, J. T., Okla. Geol. Surv. Circ., 109, 271–278, 2003. Jeschke, A. A., Vosbeck, K., and Dreybrodt, W.: Surface controlled dissolution rates of gypsum in aqueous solutions exhibit nonlinear dissolution kinetics, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 65(1), 27–34, 2001. Johnson, K. S.: Evaporite-karst problems in the United States, in: Evaporite karst and engineering/environmental problems in the United States, edited by: Johnson, K. S. and Neal, J. T., Okla. Geol. Surv. Circ., 109, 1–20, 2003a. Johnson, K. S.: Gypsum karst and abandonment of the Upper Mangum Damsite in southwestern Oklahoma in: Evaporite karst and engineering/environmental problems in the United States, edited by: Johnson, K. S. and Neal, J. T., Okla. Geol. Surv. Circ., 109, 85–94, 2003b. Johnson, K. S.: Gypsum karst as a major factor in the design of the proposed Lower Mangum Dam in southwestern Oklahoma, in: Evaporite karst and engineering/ environmental problems in the United States, edited by: Johnson, K. S. and Neal, J. T., Okla. Geol. Surv. Circ., 109, 95–111, 2003c. Johnson, K. S: Subsidence hazards due to evaporite dissolution in the United States, Environ. Geol., 48, 395–409, 2005. Johnson, K. S.: Gypsum-karst problems in constructing dams in the USA, Environ. Geol., 53, 945–950, 2008. Jones, N. L., Budge, T. J., Lemon, A. M., and Zundel, A. K.: Generating MODFLOW grids from boundary representation solid models, Ground Water, 40(2), 194–200, 2002. Josnin, J.-Y., Pistre, S., and Drogue, C.: Modélisation d'un système karstique complexe (basin de St. Chaptes, Gard, France): un outil de synthèse des données géologiques et hydrogéologiques, Can. J. Earth Sci., 37, 1425–1445, 2000. Kaufmann, G. and Braun, J.: Karst aquifer evolution in fractured, porous rocks, Water Resour. Res., 36(6), 1381–1392, 2000. Kiraly, L.: Modeling karst aquifers by the combined discrete channel and continuum approach, Bull. Hydrogeol., 16, 77–98, 1998. Klimchouk, A. and Andrechuk, V.: Environmental problems in gypsum karst terrains in: Gypsum karst of the World, edited by: Klimchouk, A., Int. J. Speleol., 25(3–4), 145–156, 1996. Klimchouk, A., Ford, D. C., Palmer, A. N., and Dreybrodt, W. (Eds.): Speleogenesis: Evolution of Karst Aquifers, Nat. Speleol. Soc., USA, 444~pp., 2000. Konz, M., Ackerer, P., Younes, A., Huggenberger, P., and Zechner, E.: Two-dimensional stable-layered laboratory-scale experiments for testing density-coupled flow models, Water Resour. Res., 45, W02404, doi:10.1029/2008WR007118, 2009. Kovacs, A.: Geometry and hydraulic parameters of karst aquifers: A hydrodynamic modeling approach, Thèse de Doctorat, CHYN, Univ. de Neuchâtel, 2003. Lamont-Black, J., Younger, P. L., Forth, R. A., Cooper, A. H., and Bonniface, J. P.: A decision-logic framework for investigating subsidence problems potentially attributable to gypsum karstification, Eng. Geol., 65(2–3), 205–215, 2002. Lapham, W. W.: Use of temperature profiles beneath streams to determine rates of vertical ground-water flow and vertical hydraulic conductivity, US Geol. Surv. Water Supply Pap., 2337, 35~pp., 1989. Lee, C. and Farmer, I.: Fluid Flow in Discontinuous Rocks, Chapman & Hall, London, 1993. Lemon, A. M. and Jones, N. L.: Building solid models from boreholes and user-defined cross-sections, Comput. Geosci., 29(5), 547–555, 2003. Liedl, R., Sauter, M., Hückinghaus, D., Clemens, T., and Teutsch, G.: Simulation of the development of karst aquifers using a coupled continuum pipe flow model, Water Resour. Res., 39(3), 1057, doi:10.1029/ 2001WR001206, 2003. Long, J. C. S., Remer, J. S., Wilson, C. R., and Witherspoon, P. A.: Porous media equivalents for networks of discontinuous fractures, Water Resour. Res., 18(3), 645–658, 1982. Long, J. C. S. and Billaux, D. M.: From field data to fracture network modeling: an example incorporating spatial structure, Water Resour. Res., 23(7), 1201–1216, 1987. Mace, R. E.: Geostatistical description of hydraulic properties in karst aquifers: a case study in the Edwards Aquifer, Proceedings, International Symposium on Groundwater Management, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 193–198, 1995. Makropoulos, C., Koutsoyiannis, D., Stanic, M., Djordevic, S., Prodanovic, D., Dasic, T., Prohaska, S., Maksimovic, C., and Wheater, H. S.: A multi-model approach to the simulation of large scale karst flows, J. Hydrol., 348, 412–424, 2008. Milanovi\'c, P. T.: Geological Engineering in Karst, Zebra Publishing, Belgrade, Yugoslavia, 2000. Milanovic, P.: Water resources engineering in karst, CRC press, Taylor & Francis, London, 2004. Nagra: Project Opalinuston: Syntheses of geoscientific investigation results, NTB: 02-03, 2002 (in German). Oswald, S. and Kinzelbach, W.: Three-dimensional physical benchmark experiments to test variable-density flow models, J. Hydrol., 290, 22–42, 2004. Payton, C. C. and Hansen, M. N.: Gypsum karst in southwestern Utah: failure and reconstruction of Quail Creek Dike, in: Evaporite karst and engineering/environmental problems in the United States, edited by: Johnson, K. S. and Neal, J. T., Okla. Geol. Surv. Circ., 109, 293–303, 2003. Pearson, R. M.: Gypsum karst of the Lykins Formation and effects for Colorado Front Range water projects; Horsetooth and Carter Lake Reservoirs, Geol. Soc. Am. Abstr. Programs, 34(6), 216, 2002. Pearson, F. J., Balderer, W., Loosli, H. H., Lehmann, B. E., Matter, A., Peters, T., Schmassmann, H., and Gautschi, A.: Applied Isotope Hydrogeology-a case study in northern Switzerland, Elsevier, 1991. Quinn, J. and Tomasko, D.: A numerical approach to simulating mixed flow in karst aquifers, in: Groundwater Flow and Contaminant Transport in Carbonate Aquifers, edited by: Sasowsky, I. and Wicks, C., A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 147–156, 2000. Quinn, J. J., Tomasko, D., and Kuiper, J. A.: Modeling complex flow in a karst aquifer, Sed. Geol., 184(3–4), 343–351, 2006. Regli, C., Huggenberger, P., and Rauber, M.: Interpretation of drill-core and georadar data of coarse gravel deposits, J. Hydrol., 255, 234–252, 2002. Romanov, D., Dreybrodt, W., and Gabrovšek, F.: Interaction of fracture and conduit flow in the evolution of karst aquifers in: Proceedings of the Symposium on Karst Aquifers: Florida and Related Environments, edited by: Martin, J. B., Wicks, C., and Sasowsky, I. D., Karst Water Institute, Charles Town, West Virginia, KWI special publication 7., 1–6, 2002. Romanov, D., Gabrovšek, F., and Dreybrodt, W.: Dam sites in soluble rocks: a model of increasing leakage by dissolutional widening of fractures beneath a dam, Eng. Geol., 70, 17–35, 2003. Romanov, D., Gabrovsek, F., and Dreybrodt, W.: Leakage below dam sites in limestone terrrains by enhanced corrosion: a modeling approach, Environ. Geol., 51, 775–779, 2007. Romanov, D., Epting, J., Huggenberger, P., and Kaufmann, G.: Karstification of an aquifer along the Birs River, Switzerland – from natural to anthropogenic dominated boundary conditions, EGU General Assembly 2009, Geophys. Res. Abstr., 11, EGU2009-0, 2009. Schmassmann, H.: Baselbieter and western Aargauer Tafeljura, in: Erläuterungen zum Blatt Bözberg-Beromünster 1. Hydrogeologische Karte der Schweiz, edited by: Jäckli, H. and Kempf, T., 93–100, 1972 (in German). Siemers, J. and Dreybrodt, W.: Early development of karst aquifers on percolation networks of fractures in limestone, Water Resour. Res., 34(3), 409–419, 1998. Silliman, S. E. and Booth, D. F.: Analysis of time-series measurements of sediment temperature for identification of gaining vs. losing portions of Juday Creek, Indiana, J. Hydrol., 146, 131–148, 1993. Silliman, S. E., Ramirez, J., and McCabe, R. L.: GHB downflow through creek sediments using temperature time series: One-dimensional solution incorporating measured surface temperature, J. Hydrol., 167, 99–119, 1995. Spottke, I., Zechner, E., and Huggenberger, P.: The southeastern border of the Upper Rhine Graben: A 3-D geological model and its importance for tectonics and groundwater flow, Int. J. Earth Sci., 94, 580–593, 2005. Taniguchi, M. and Sharam, M. L.: Solute and heat transport experiments for estimating recharge rate, J. Hydrol., 119, 57–69, 1990. Teutsch, G.: Groundwater models in karstified terrains: two practical examples from the Swabian Alb (S. Germany), Proceedings, Solving Ground Water Problems with Models, International Ground Water Modeling Center, Indianapolis, Indiana, 929–953, 1989. Thrailkill, J., Sullivan, S. B., and Gouzie, D. R.: Flow parameters in a shallow conduit-flow carbonate aquifer, Inner Bluegrass Karst Region, Kentucky, USA, J. Hydrol., 129, 87–108, 1991. White, W. B.: Geomorphology and Hydrology of Karst Terrains, Oxford Univ. Press, New York, USA, 1988.