Assessing downstream flood impacts due to a potential GLOF from Imja Lake in Nepal

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Introduction
Recent worldwide retreat of glaciers (WGMS, 2013) has been very evident in the Mt.Everest region of Nepal where glacial lakes continue to form and grow; significantly increasing the risk of glacier lake outburst floods (GLOFs) (S.R. Bajracharya et al., 2007;ICIMOD, 2011;Ives et al., 2010;Shrestha and Aryal, 2011).Many of these lakes are considered potentially dangerous (S.R. Bajracharya et al., 2007;Bolch et al., 2008;Watanabe et al., 2009;ICIMOD 2011).Therefore; risk and vulnerability assessments of communities and assets located downstream of glacial lakes in this region have become necessary.Remedial actions have been taken to reduce the risk of GLOF, in one case at Tsho Rolpa lake and another is under design at Imja Lake (Rana et al., 2000;UNDP 2013).In the region near Imja Lake, there have been 2 GLOFs in recent decades, Nare (1977) and Dig Tsho (1985), resulting in significant damage to farms, Figures villages, trails and some loss of life (Buchroithner et al., 1982;Ives, 1986;Vuichard and Zimmermann, 1986).Imja Lake, located in the Khumbu region (27.9 • N, 86.9 • E, Fig. 1), is bounded on the east by the Lhotse-Shar and Imja glaciers, on the north and south by lateral moraines, and to the west by a 700 m wide by 700 m long ice-cored outlet complex (Watanabe et al., 2009;Somos-Valenzuela et al., 2013).The lake, which did not exist in 1960, has experienced rapid growth in area and volume since then; by 2002 it had a volume of 35.8 ± 0.7 million m 3 (Sakai et al., 2007), and by 2012 the volume had increased to 61.7 ± 3.7 million m 3 (Somos-Valenzuela et al., 2014).The western, down-valley expansion has stabilized in recent years while the eastern expansion continues unabated (Watanabe et al., 2009) mostly through calving from the glacier terminus.Avalanche debris falling from surrounding high mountains and hanging ice is prevented from entering the lake by the high lateral moraines, which are separated from the surrounding mountains by several 10 s of meters (Hambrey et al., 2008).The bottom of the lake has continued to lower as the ice of the glacier beneath the lake melts (Watanabe et al., 1995;Fujita et al., 2009;Somos-Valenzuela et al., 2014).The characterization of the risk of Imja Lake is somewhat controversial, with some researchers declaring it to be relatively dangerous (Hammond, 1988;Kattelmann, 2003;Ives et al., 2010), and others concluding that it may be stable (Fujita et al., 2009;Watanabe et al., 2009;ICIMOD, 2011).ICIMOD (2011) identified Imja Lake as one of six high-priority glacial lakes in Nepal that require detailed investigation, while other studies have stated that Imja Lake is safe (Fujita et al., 2013) or very low risk (Hambrey et al., 2008).These conflicting classifications are confusing and can be misleading to the general public and communities downstream, who are the stakeholders these studies are meant to assist.Imja Lake is among six glacial lakes identified in the Nepal National Adaptation Plan of Action (NAPA) as having at the most immediate risk of bursting (MoE, 2010).The United Nations Development Program (UNDP) is implementing the "Community Based Flood and Glacial Lake Outburst Risk Reduction Project" in an effort to reduce the possible risk to downstream communities posed by the lake.Introduction

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Full According to the UNDP project strategy (UNDP, 2013), the "GLOF risks arising from Imja Lake will be significantly reduced by reducing the lake volume through an artificial controlled drainage system combined with a community-based early warning system."They recommend lowering the lake level by at least 3 m to achieve this risk reduction.Dingboche is probably the most risk prone area from a potential Imja GLOF.The villages of Chukkung (∼ 4 km) and Dingboche (∼ 8 km) are the two nearest settlements from the lake.The former is located relatively off the Imja Khola (stream), so at less risk, whereas the latter is the largest settlement along the stream and it has extensive agricultural lands and buildings within 10-20 m elevation from the stream that will be flooded in the event of a GLOF unless flood prevention measures are taken.
In this paper we present a new, two-dimensional debris flow model for predicting the potential GLOF hazard from Imja Lake in terms of inundation depth in downstream communities and present a measure of uncertainty in the GLOF inundation predictions.We analyze four scenarios: current lake conditions, and three risk mitigation scenarios with the lake water level lowered 3, 10 or 20 m below the current level.Finally, we discuss possible methods for lowering the lake water level to reduce the GLOF hazard.To the authors' knowledge, this is the first attempt to quantify the impact that various flood control alternatives would have on potential GLOF damage in downstream villages.

Data
To model the propagation of a GLOF from Imja Lake to the downstream community of Dingboche, we used two Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) for the Imja Lake GLOF model: (1) a 5 m × 5 m grid cell DEM of the Imja-Lhotse Shar glacier and the moraine surrounding the lake generated from 2006 ALOS imagery (Lamsal et al., 2011); and (2) a DEM extending from the lake to just below Dingboche derived using the method of Introduction

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Full for flooding and inundation modeling; however, they cover only 11 km of the river basin downstream from the lake.Expanded 5 m × 5 m DEM coverage downstream of Dingboche could be produced, but ALOS imagery was not available for this work.Instead, we used a lower resolution DEM for the region downstream of Dingboche to just below the village of Phakding.Initially a 30 m × 30 m resolution DEM was produced from Advanced Space borne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER L1) data (Tachikawa, 2011).However, ASTER L1 data has too many unrealistic features such as many ponds between Imja Lake and Phakding that don't exist according to our field observations.Therefore, we decided to use the DEM created from 40 m interval contour topographic maps produced by B. Bajracharya et al. (2007).The modeled portion of the river has a length of 38.5 km from the lake outlet to a point 5 km downstream of the village of Phakding.Roughness coefficients for eight categories of land cover in the basin were assigned using land cover maps derived from 2006 ASTER imagery for the Sagarmatha National park (Bajracharya and Uddin, 2010).These values agreed well with those that Cenderelli and Wohl (2001) calculated for the Imja Khola (0.15 and 0.30 for the riverbed and floodplain, respectively), and values that the Flo-2D manual (Flo-2D, 2012) recommends for the types of land cover found in the basin.Somos-Valenzuela et al. (2014) conducted a bathymetric survey of Imja Lake in 2012 and estimated the lake volume was 61.7 ± 3.7 million m 3 and 34.1 ± 1.08 million m 3 of Introduction

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Full piping through the dam and earthquakes (Kattelmann and Watanabe, 1998;Somos-Valenzuela et al., 2013).Other factors that may trigger a GLOF from Imja Lake include hydrostatic pressure or seismic effects causing a failure of the moraine dam.Hydrostatic pressure on the moraine may cause intense filtration and piping with potentially catastrophic consequences.
We observed seepage from the base of the southern portion of the damming moraine during five visits to the lake between 2011 and 2014.In September 2013 the seepage was measured using a tape measure and portable velocity meter (Global Water flow probe FP111 turbo prop positive displacement sensor with a range of 0.1-6.1 m s −1 and an accuracy of 0.03048 m s −1 ).At the seepage outlet, 2 sets of measurements were taken and an average flow of 0.005 m 3 s −1 was calculated.In addition, 3 sets of flow measurements were made at the Imja Lake outlet (bridge over the Imja Khola) and an average flow of 2.2 m 3 s −1 was calculated.
To model a potential moraine breach initiating a GLOF from Imja Lake, we use a combination of moraine breach analysis tools.First, the shape, final size, and failure time of the breach are estimated from empirical equations.Failure time is the time needed for complete development of the breach from the initial breakthrough to the end of lateral enlargement (Froehlich, 2008).Second, these parameters are used in a HEC-RAS dam breach model (USACE, 2010) to simulate the breach hydrograph, which is then used as input to a 2-D downstream inundation model.
There are a number of empirical dam breach equations in the literature (Wahl, 2010;Westoby et al., 2014).However, the equations developed by Froehlich (1995) were selected for use here because Wahl (2004) found these equations to have the lowest uncertainty among a large number of equations studied.Froehlich's equations (Froehlich, 1995) were used to predict breach width (B, m), failure time (t f , h) and peak discharge Introduction

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Full (1) where the moraine parameters in these equations are the breach height (h b , m), the drainable water volume (V w , m 3 ), the depth of water above the breach invert at the time of failure (h w , m), and overtopping multiplier k (k = 1 for no overtopping, and k = 1.4 for overtopping).The values of these parameters are shown in Table 1.The value of V w in Table 1 was taken from the bathymetric survey results of Somos-Valenzuela et al. (2014).From a large database of dam breach cases, Wahl (2004) derived equations to calculate upper (P u ) and lower (P l ) bounds for the breach parameters where P p is the predicted breach parameter value (B, t f , or Q p ) estimated by Eqs.
Froehlich's equations provide estimates of the breaching parameters, but to simulate the downstream inundation, the full hydrograph of the breaching event is needed.To obtain full breach hydrographs (lower, predicted and upper) we use the HEC-RAS dam break model (USACE, 2010) with the breach width (B) and failure time (t f ) calculated from Eqs. ( 1) and ( 2).These hydrographs were adjusted to match the peak discharge (Q p ) values estimated from Eq. (3).

Inundation model
Flo-2D is used to calculate the flooding downstream of Imja Lake due to a potential GLOF with the breaching hydrograph discussed in the previous section.The model Introduction

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Full is suitable to simulate the propagation of the debris flow (Flo-2D, 2012), since the effects of sediments and debris have been shown to be very important factors in GLOF events (Osti and Egashira, 2009).Although the geometry of the grid within Flo-2D is two dimensional, the flow is modeled in eight directions and the model solves the one-dimensional Saint Venant equation independently in each direction.The continuity and momentum equations are solved with a central, finite difference method using an explicit time-stepping scheme.The total friction slope can be expressed as (Flo-2D, 2012;Julien, 2010;O'Brien et al., 1993) where S y is the yield slope, S v is the viscous slope, S td is the turbulent-dispersive slope, τ y is the Mohr-Coulomb yield stress, γ m is the specific weight of the sediment mixture, K is a resistance parameter, η is the Bingham dynamic viscosity, V is the depth-averaged velocity, n is the Manning roughness coefficient.Rheological properties, η and τ γ , are formulated as exponential functions of the sediment volume concentration c v (Julien and Leon, 2000;Julien, 2010) where α i and β i are empirical coefficients defined by laboratory experiment (Flo-2D, 2009).Since we have very limited geological information for the study area, the values recommended by the Flo-2D manual for α i and β i are used (α 1 = 0.0765, β 1 = 16.9, α 2 = 0.0648 and β 2 = 6.2).Rickenmann (1999) and Julien and Leon (2000) recommend using a concentration of 50 % as an upper limit for debris flows when no other information is available and this value.Introduction

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Full

Results
The Imja GLOF model described above was used to model four scenarios of a GLOF occurring from Imja Lake: current lake conditions with the water surface at 5010 m, and three flood mitigation scenarios with the lake water level lowered 3, 10 and 20 m, respectively.The flood mitigation scenarios represent possible lake lowering efforts starting with the current UNDP project to lower the lake at least 3 m.In case that scenario does not provide any significant flood reduction downstream at Dingboche, the other scenarios can provide some guidance as to how much farther the lake might need to be lowered to achieve reduced risk.It is important to note that no other studies have analyzed the potential benefits of lowering Imja Lake and that the selection of a preferred lake lowering alternative needs to be based on such an analysis as that presented here.

Breach parameters
Table 3 shows the results of using Eqs.( 1)-( 3) and the moraine characteristics in Table 1 to calculate the lower bound, predicted, and upper bound values of the breaching parameters (B, t f , and Q p ).The upper and lower bounds of the breaching parameters were calculated from Eqs. ( 4) and ( 5) using the prediction errors and uncertainty bands from Table 2. Lowering the lake level by 3 m does not result in a significant change in the failure time and only a 13.8 % decrease in the peak discharge.However, lowering the level by 10 m has a major impact on peak discharge, reducing it by 58.5 % and further lowering of the level to 20 m reduces the discharge by 73.8 %.

Breach hydrographs
Discharge hydrographs for potential moraine breaches at Imja Lake were computed using the HEC-RAS dam break module and the lower bound, predicted, and upper bound Introduction

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Full breach parameters under the current conditions scenario (see Table 4).The HEC-RAS hydrograph peak discharges were matched to the peak discharge values in

Inundation model
The Flo-2D inundation model was used to compute the results of the 4 potential Imja Lake GLOF scenarios.The first scenario considers the lake in its current condition with the lake level at 5010 m above mean sea level.Then alternatives with lake levels 3, 10, and 20 m lower than this were considered.

Current conditions scenario
The results (lower bound, expected value, upper bound) of modeling a potential GLOF from Imja Lake under current conditions are shown in Table 4 and Figs.2-4 at Dingboche (at the cross section indicated in Fig. 4).Table 4 also shows the flood arrival time, peak time, peak stage, and flood peak discharge just downstream of Imja Lake and at Dingboche.Figure 2 shows the expected GLOF discharge hydrograph and bounds at Dingboche.The flood arrives at Dingboche 1 h after the breaching begins (range 0.6-1.9h), peaks at 1.3 h (range 0.8-2.8h) and is over after about 7 h.Figure 3  (range 4208-13 248 m 3 s −1 ). Figure 4a shows the expected inundation at Dingboche.
The lower and upper bounds are also shown in Fig. 4b and c, respectively.Introduction

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Full The inundated area at Dingboche was mapped in GIS and shows that, under the expected value simulation, most of the inundation is in the farming terrace areas and not the main lodges and other infrastructure along the primary trekking trail through the village (see Fig. 4, top image).With no lake lowering, about 9.4 ha of farmland will be inundated and 29 structures impacted (see Table 5, 0 m lowering scenario).
Further downstream at Phakding, the flooding also has an impact on potential flooding.At Phakding, the flood arrives 3.1 h (range 2.4-4.4 h) after the breaching begins and peaks at 3.2 h (range 2.6-4.7 h) with a peak discharge of 3412 m 3 s −1 (range 3171-3473 m 3 s −1 ) (see Fig. 5).The lag time between the peak flow at Imja Lake and the peak at Phakding is 2.2 h (see Table 4).

Lake lowering scenarios
A proposal to reduce the risk of a GLOF from Imja Lake that is currently (2014) under implementation is to lower the water level of the lake at least 3 m (UNDP, 2013).The Imja GLOF model was used to assess the potential flood reduction at Dingboche if such a plan were to be implemented.To this end, the model was run with lake levels 3, 10, and 20 m lower than the current conditions scenario level (5010 m).The results for these scenarios are shown in Table 5 and Figs.6-8.Figures 6 and 7 show the hydrographs and flood stage, respectively, at Dingboche for the 0, 3, 10 and 20 m lake lowering scenarios.Figure 8 maps the inundation depth at Dingboche for the different lake lowering scenarios.Lowering the lake 3 m (Fig. 8a) results in a 2.7 % reduction in the peak flood depth at Dingboche (compared to the 0 m lowering scenario) with the peak flood height lowering 0.6 m (from 22.4 to 21.8 m).This flood height still leads to significant inundation of homes and farmlands.With the lake lowered by 3 m about 8.6 ha of farmland and 25 structures are impacted by the flooding.In contrast, lowering the lake 10 m (Fig. 8b) or 20 m (Fig. 8c) results in a 14 and 36 % flood height reduc-Introduction

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Full inundates little farmland and floods no structures.When the lake is lowered 10 m about 4 ha of farmland will be inundated and 18 structures impacted and at 20 m lowering about 1 ha of farmland will be inundated and 0 structures impacted.Additionally, the peak discharge is reduced by 6.5, 40.6 and 73.8 % as a result of lowering the lake by 3, 10 or 20 m, respectively (Table 5).
Further downstream at Phakding, the lake lowering scenarios have an impact on potential flooding as well (see Fig. 9).Lowering the lake 3 m results in a 13.9 % reduction of peak flow at Phakding.In contrast, lowering the lake 10 m results in 49.3 % reduction at Phakding, and lowering 20 m results in an 81.6 % reduction at Phakding (see Table 5).(Fread, 1988) was used to generate moraine breach hydrographs that were passed to a NWS FLDWAV model (Fread and Lewis, 1998)  B. Bajracharya et al. (2007) using additional field results to more accurately define the geotechnical parameters of the moraine.The lake bathymetry was updated from 2009 fieldwork with the total volume reported to be 35.5 million m 3 (ICIMOD, 2011).The moraine-breaching trigger was not specified and might be either overtopping or piping.The simulated breach depth was 30 m, the same as we used here.

Comparison to previous Imja
We can compare the results of ICIMOD ( 2011) with those reported here, since this is being asked of the consultants working on the UNDP Imja Lake risk reduction project (UNDP, 2013).For the breaching process, ICIMOD reported a breaching time of 2.9 h with a peak discharge of 5817 m 3 s −1 ; whereas, we calculate 1.01 h (range 0.38 to 7.32 h) and a peak of 8394 m 3 s −1 (range 4272 to 19 000 m 3 s −1 ).At Dingboche, ICIMOD reported a flood arrival of 3.1 h with a peak of 3000 m 3 s −1 (estimated from Fig. 8.2, p. 65); whereas, we show flood arrival at 1 h (range 0.6-1.9h) and a peak of 7544 m 3 s −1 (range 4208-13 248 m 3 s −1 ).At Ghat near Phakding, ICIMOD reported arrival at 4.2 h with a peak of 2300 m 3 s −1 , whereas, we calculate 3.1 h (range 2.4-4.4 h) with a peak of 3412 m 3 s −1 (range 3171-3473 m 3 s −1 ).The reason for the differences here is most likely the use of the significantly smaller Imja Lake volume in the ICIMOD calculations due to the bathymetry used.This causes faster propagation of larger flows downstream.In assessing the possibly reduced risk to downstream communities from implementing a lake lowering alternative, it is recommended that the latest estimates of the volume and bathymetry of Imja Lake be used, e.g., 2012 or later.

Options for Imja Lake risk reduction
To date there is no agreed upon set of hazard indicators for Imja Lake, or other potentially dangerous glacial lakes for that matter (Somos-Valenzuela et al., 2013); however, the definition of GLOF hazard from Imja Lake was discussed in consultations with community members in Dingboche in September 2012 and subsequently.The hazard of an Imja Lake GLOF did not exist 30 years ago, and the community members' vulnerabilities stem from the location of their homes and farms relative to the flood plain.For Introduction

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Full them, hazard is having their farms or homes flooded or washed away, a prospect that they want reduced and preferably eliminated (Somos-Valenzuela et al., 2013).The feasibility of possible remedial actions at Imja Lake to reduce the hazard to downstream communities was evaluated.One scenario that appears to have significant risk reduction possibility is lowering the lake 20 m.Of course, there are other impacts of a GLOF from Imja Lake that will be felt downstream, in particular there are several stretches of the main trekking trail from Namche Bazar to Lukla that run quite close to the river and would be washed away, as they were in the 1985 Dig Tsho GLOF (Ives, 1986;Vuichard and Zimmermann, 1986).In addition some parts of villages along the trail have fields and houses near the river, and they may also be impacted.However, providing reduced flooding at Dingboche should also provide protection to many of the downstream areas as well.Lowering the lake by any amount will reduce the probability of GLOF occurrence for at least two reasons, the hydrostatic pressure on the moraine would be reduced and the top of the moraine would be wider and more difficult to breach.Consequently, reducing the GLOF's occurrence probability would decrease the hazard level downstream.
Of the methods to reduce glacial lake risk, e.g., relocation of people and assets from the flood path, strengthening the lake outlet (Kattelmann and Watanabe, 1998), the one that has been employed the most is lowering the lake level.This has been used at nearly 40 dangerous glacial lakes in Peru since the 1950s (Portocarrero, 2014).
Typically, the lake is lowered to a safe level by siphoning or draining and then excavating the damming moraine and installing a drainage channel at the desired elevation.Often, a reinforced earthen dam is then constructed to replace the original unconsolidated moraine dam, such that if a surge wave overtops the dam it will contain much of the excess water and not fail from erosion (Somos-Valenzuela et al., 2013).In order to lower glacial lakes, siphons are often used, e.g., at Hualcán Lake (Lake 513) in Peru (Portocarrero, 2014).Lowering glacial lakes more than about 5 m is infeasible at altitudes of 5000 m, but greater lowering can be achieved using an incremental method as discussed below (Somos-Valenzuela et al., 2013).Introduction

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Full The UNDP Imja Lake project suggests that lowering the lake "at least" 3 m will achieve significant risk reduction downstream (UNDP 2013), but there is no requirement to estimate the remaining risk when the lake is lowered to different levels (3, 10, 20 m).This work has attempted analyze this question.Siphons may be used at Imja Lake to progressively lower the level in 3-5 m increments followed by excavation of the lake outlet.
Previous studies have suggested deepening and strengthening the outlet of Imja Lake (Maskey, 2012).However, there are many difficulties in implementing this method.First, the natural flow of the outlet must be interrupted somehow in order to perform any excavation of the channel.In the siphoning method discussed above, the lake is lowered and then the outlet can be excavated to that level without needing to divert the outlet flow.One method that has been proposed is to build a coffer dam and divert water to flow over another part of the damming moraine and then excavate the existing outlet channel of the lake to increase its depth and discharge (Maskey, 2012).The difficulties of employing this method include: (1) possibly encountering ice during the excavation, significantly weakening the moraine and possibly inducing a GLOF, (2) diversion of the outlet flow might cause excessive erosion that could weaken the moraine and potentially lead to a GLOF, and (3) the existence of small ponds in the outlet complex that are separated with shallow necks (with as little as 1.5 m depth) through which the lake water flows might prevent the draining of the lake unless they were also excavated (Somos-Valenzuela et al., 2013).The difficulty of encountering buried ice exists in any method employing excavation of the damming moraine and the moraine must be examined in detail with geophysical methods before this can be done safely.The example of Tsho Rolpa is being used as a model lake lowering system for Imja Lake (UNDP, 2013).An outlet channel was constructed at Tsho Rolpa and Introduction

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Full probably 20 m to achieve significant hazard reduction.Lowering Imja Lake will require draining: (1) the normal inflow to the lake, (2) the volume of the lake expansion during the time of drainage, and (3) the volume of the lake necessary to achieve 3 m lowering per drainage cycle (Somos-Valenzuela et al., 2013).Lake discharge was measured in May 2012 by a group from Kathmandu University using a tracer dilution method (Maskey, 2012) and by the authors using a timed float method (Somos-Valenzuela et al., 2013).In both cases the flow was found to be approximately 1 m 3 s −1 .The authors again measured the flow with a flow meter in September 2013 and found the discharge to be approximately 2 m 3 s −1 (see above for description of method).The lake area was 1.257 ± 0.104 km 2 in September 2012, and increasing by about 0.04 km 2 yr −1 (Somos-Valenzuela et al., 2014).This will require 1.353 m 3 s −1 of drainage to lower the lake 3 m during a 5 month period in the melt season using 13 siphon pipes of 350 mm diameter.

Conclusions
Methods for reducing the downstream inundation hazard from a GLOF originating at Imja Lake in Nepal were explored.A 2-dimensional debris flow model was developed to assess the downstream inundation.Inundation reducing scenarios were analyzed and an alternative under design, lowering the lake at least 3 m, was found not to have significant flood reduction benefits.The results indicate that the lake needs to be lowered about 20 m in order to completely reduce the impacts that a GLOF could have at a coordinated sequence of siphoning to lower the water level in 3 m increments, followed by outlet excavation to maintain the new level.The process would be repeated as needed to reach the desired lake level.Introduction

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Full    Full  Full Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Screen / Esc Printer-friendly Version Interactive Discussion Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | shows the flood stage at Dingboche (upper bound, expected value, lower bound).The highest expected flood stage is 22.4 m (range 18.4-26.4m) and the peak flow is 7544 m 3 s −1 Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Lake GLOF modeling B. Bajracharya et al. (2007) developed a water-flow GLOF model for Imja Lake that simulated flood flow in the Imja Khola and Dudh Kosi from the lake to about 45 km downstream of the outlet near Phakding.That one-dimensional model used a DEM derived from satellite data (30 m × 30 m grid cells) and one interpolated from 40 m contour maps (5 m × 5 m grid cells).This is the same DEM that we used for the reach from Dingboche to Phakding.The bathymetry of Imja Lake was taken from a 2002 survey indicating the total volume of the lake was 35.8 ± 0.7 million m 3 (Sakai et al., 2007), rather than the 61.7 ± 3.7 million m 3 total volume used in this study based on the more recent 2012 survey (Somos-Valenzuela et al., 2014).The US National Weather Service (NWS) BREACH model and routed downstream.Peak flows at the cross-sections of the FLDWAV model were input to a steady-state US Army Corps of Engineers HEC-RAS model (USACE, 2010) to predict inundation at key cross sections.ICIMOD (2011) extended the work of Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Dingboche and further downstream.The results show that a GLOF occurring under the current lake conditions would result in inundation of much of the farming areas (about 9.4 ha and 29 structures impacted) at Dingboche but not the main lodges and other infrastructure along the primary trekking trail through the village.Lowering lake 3 m does not change this result much, but 10 m lowering reduces the impact substantially with about 4 ha of farmland and 18 structures impacted, and at 20 m lowering almost all impact at Dingboche is prevented.All cases involving lowering the lake would require Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Watanabe, T., Kameyama, S., and Sato, T.: Imja glacier dead-ice melt rates and changes in a supra-glacial lake, 1989-1994, Khumbu Himal, Nepal: danger of lake drainage, Mt.Res.Dev., 15, 293-300, 1995.Watanabe, T., Lamsal, D., and Ives, J. D.: Evaluating the growth characteristics of a glacial lake and its degree of danger of outburst flooding: Imja glacier, Khumbu Himal, Nepal, Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper | Discussion Paper |

Figure 2 .Figure 3 .
Figure 2. Upper bound, expected and lower bound GLOF hydrograph at Dingboche under current lake conditions.
Table 3 by adjusting the failure time within the range shown in the table.The predicted peak discharge is 8394 m 3 s −1 (see Table 4 -Imja Lake) compared to 8274 m 3 s −1 computed with Froehlich's equation, a difference of 1.4 %.The range of peak discharge (upper minus lower bound) is 14 728 m 3 s −1 compared to 14 613 m 3 s −1 computed by Froehlich's equation, about 0.8 % difference.These results indicate good agreement between the HEC-RAS computed hydrograph values and the empirical Froehlich equation values.

Table 1 .
Moraine parameter values used in the breaching equations.

Table 2 .
Prediction error and uncertainty bands for the Froehlich breaching equations.

Table 5 .
Inundation model results at Dingboche and Phakding for lake lowering scenarios under current conditions.